Dialog in a cafeteria near the office of Victoria and Abigail

One Saturday afternoon in a cafeteria near the office of Victoria and Abigail, they scheduled themselves to unwind and take a look to what really is going on in the realm they are into. Abigail unconsciously uttered what tremendous circumstance that is happening around her in the office and she simply takes into account the attitude of being bullshit is scattered in their working area, â€Å"As I join my officemate, I can’t help but just listen to the bullshit topic they are apt to† â€Å"You know, that was so rampant in the environment that we have, isn’t it? † Victoria shows her feelings as she grabs her cup of coffee.The two girls relate with each other as they exchanged insight as regards to the huge fuzz of bullshit thing. Abigail exemplify â€Å"You know girl, the thought of being bullshit lies on the fact that it is beyond the lies that we make, it is more alarming because you are doing beyond what you think is true† â€Å"What you mean Abig ail? † â€Å"What I am trying to embark here is that the verity that you lie, you actually knew that you are doing the wrong thing but it is different when you are talking about something without caring whether it is factual or not† Abigail expounds as she has a second thought behind her mind what is Victoria is thinking about.â€Å"What are you thinking about? † Abigail asked. Victoria responded, â€Å"Well, nothing besides the realization of what you are trying to implore†. â€Å"In actuality Victoria, it is more alarming than we think how being bullshit destruct one’s personality†, Abigail is provoking the feelings of Victoria towards the subject matter. â€Å"You know girl, the air in our environment in the office is very unscrupulous† Victoria is listening intensely to what Abigail is about to share. Abigail continues, â€Å"One of my officemates is claiming that she is rich and to the point that she is acting like a real oneâ₠¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å"Really, how come you say that? † â€Å"It was quite obvious that she is not and she is just making a bullshit gesture. You know, there were times that we are just talking about our experiences in the office as we handle our client and answering their queries, all of a sudden she will make a huge fuzz out of nowhere about her new condominium†. Abigail added, â€Å"It’s not that we are envious of her but obviously, it is not related to the topic most especially, we are all aware that it is not true and she is just acting like a rich fellow† â€Å"That was terrible! † Victoria reacted.â€Å"Absolutely, that’s why we usually get annoyed of her actions† Abigail really wanted to hear Victoria’s insights as to the matter of bullshit because in the realm they are distressing, it is quite everywhere and everybody is getting into the angle of the phenomenon. As the conversation of the two becomes intense, they did not notice tha t they spend almost two hours just tackling what bullshit in their eyes is. Of course, the subject matter is truly controversial because we can never deny the fact how we usually use such word to our daily encounters in our lives.Going back to the cafeteria where Abigail and Victoria are exchanging their views, Victoria cannot take holding her emotions and reacted completely to what was Abigail is talking about earlier. She never hesitated to counterfeit what was Abigail’s scrutiny in relation to bullshit measures. â€Å"I agree with you when you say that it happens in our nature nowadays that bullshit is everywhere and we cannot do anything sometimes even if we condemn the act†, Victoria uttered.Abigail is listening on what Victoria is about to take note. â€Å"Bullshit was established in the context of the discourse and not in intentions of the speaker per se† Victoria exemplifies as she eagerly expound what she is thinking as Abigail is talking earlier. Abiga il is listening attentively to Victoria as she sips her coffee, accordingly she reacted â€Å"what views you are apt to when you mention that it is in the context of the beholder’s speech and not in the intention of the speaker that bullshit arises? †Victoria act in response â€Å"consider the norms of politics as those in authority consistently delivering how their nations are coping with the tremendous change in this time and age, however they fail to take a look on several issues of corruption that tends to depreciate the stability of their nation. The bullshit context of the authority’s approach to changing nation despite their unintentional gesture was quite dishonest and considered a bullshit act. Parallel to this, acting inappropriately by holding into corruption was undeniably unprincipled†It seems that the two girls are showing their perception to the phenomenal acts of being bullshit. Indeed, the different approach that they believed in truly de picts a sense of formulating a specific theory towards the anomaly of being bullshit. Abigail is wondering how deep Victoria’s attitude towards their subject matter. She cannot hide in her inner self if at some point in her conversation with her friend that their views meet. It is good to take note the buzz about being bullshit nowadays, may it be on the fact that you acted the wrong and unaccepted way or the fact that your views contributes on being a bullshit material.Either way, the theories at hand might contribute to the understanding of what this is all about. As the two girls continues to talk about what they encounter in their work and in the nation that they belong, they can’t hinder themselves to weigh who has the most reasonable consideration to what they are talking about. Abigail insisted that by being bullshit, it come to light the fact that you neglect what is true and believe in yourself that you are doing the right thing even if you just decoded what r eally is true and what is not.On another account, Victoria uttered that it goes with the content of what you say that makes person a bullshit one. Unintentionally we do and say things which are oppose to our norms but we do not intend to sound like bullshit but by not controlling our selves, we make project such attitude. In realism, the perception of Abigail matters a she define bullshit by being neglect able of what is right and wrong. It has been said that it is most dangerous to be bullshit than to make lies and this is what Abigail shares to her friend. As they exchanged their views, the girls got enlightened by their topic and they just bonded all night long.

Football as an Intramural Essay

Abstract Intramural sports present a fun way for students to spend their time at school, and provide an excellent opportunity to introduce themselves in the new world of college. Students get the chance to meet new people by playing against them in various sports such as softball, volleyball, and basketball. These sports are also co-ed, meaning that men and women can play on the same teams or against one another. Intramurals is also a great way to improve attendance or boost student’s motivation to improve their grades. However, there is only a select variety of options for sports. Most of the sports would fall under women’s sports, with their being softball over baseball and volleyball over football. There aren’t many options for men to get involved in intramurals with no men’s sports to play. Adding one sport that’s a men’s sport will give men more options in participating in intramurals. The addition of football may be what this school needs to get more people involved in intramural sports at Alexandria Technical and Community College (ATCC). With a chance for more men to participate, and more women to get involved in men’s sports, it’s a sport that cannot fail if the right conditions are met. Too much contact could be an issue, but if it were even touch football (2-hand touch), there wouldn’t be very many problems. Adding football to ATCC intramurals is what this school needs to not only offer more options for students, but to help attendance and boost student motivation to improve grades. It will be beneficial for the school, and fun for the students. 1. 0 Introduction Alexandria Technical and Community College is a great place to get to know other students. One of the ways to meet the students is by joining their intramural sports and getting on teams that compete against the other teams of the school. 1. 1 Problem With having intramural sports comes the privilege of choosing what you want to do with your time. However, there are not many options for intramural sports. There is softball and volleyball, just to name a couple, but not many options for the students. This may be why there are a lot of ATCC students not participating in intramurals. We believe that the addition of one particular sport will attract more students, and that sport is football. 2. 0 Discussion 2. 1 Benefits to ATCC One of the main focuses of ATCC is to get their students involved in the school and the community. One of the ways they stride for this goal is to encourage students to join in intramurals. Our idea is that if football is added to the intramural list, it may bring in more students to participate in intramural sports, and bring more students together. 2. 2 Benefits to Students According to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Proposition 48, students who participate in school activities and sports must maintain a GPA of 2. 0 on a 4. 0 scale [ (Begnaud, 2007) ]. With that being said, this would prove that students who participate in extracurricular activities would have to motivate themselves and push themselves to maintain a high enough GPA to still participate. This motivation would be beneficial to students, and with more students wanting to play football, this would motivate more students to succeed in school. So now the question is, â€Å"How do you know football is a popular sport? † Well, according to studies done by many colleges such as MSU Moorhead, football has been ranked the number one popular sport in the United States [ (Walter) ]. This means that given the choice, football would be the top pick for the majority of the nation. With that being said, if football is added to intramurals then students would choose it for their intramural and would be motivated to do well in school to be able to participate in intramurals. Figure 1. 1 2. 3 Effects on Attendance As was stated in section 2. 1, students would be more likely to do good in school because they must maintain a GPA of at least a 2. 0 on a 4. 0 scale. If students are to good in school, they must attend school and do well. Attendance is important to do good in school, so intramurals must effect attendance, right? This can be proven if the rules of the NCAA Proposition 48 are followed. 2. 4 Effects on Grades Again, the NCAA Proposition 48 proves that sports do have a major impact on grades, but only because they have to. Students must do good in school if they want to participate in intramurals. Figure 1. 2 2. 5 Right to Give Students a Choice in Sports According to the Constitution, we all have the right to free speech (Amendment 1). If this is true, then it should also give us all the right to a vote. So shouldn’t students be able to vote on whether or not to include football in intramurals? In addition to that, students should also have the right to vote on whether or not to choose if they want to play football as their intramural if it is added to intramurals. The point to be made here is that we all have a right to vote, so we feel that there should be a vote at ATCC on whether or not to add football to the list of intramurals. Our voices should be heard if there is something that we truly believe will benefit the people and the school better. 2. 6 Comparison to Schools with Football as an Intramural Sport It is very difficult to compare ATCC with other schools with intramural sports, and especially since ATCC doesn’t have football as an intramural. However, according to the following website, these are the community colleges that do include football as a sport of choice: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/List_of_community_college_football_programs This website gives all of the schools that have football as a sport of choice. On this list, some of the schools are also listed on the list of the top community colleges in the US. ATCC ranked #8 on the list, while St. Paul College ranked #1, and they do have football as a sport [ (Washington Monthly, 2010) ]. So, could football actually help our students do better in school? It appears that it could, since 57% of all men in colleges played football [ (Heinlien, 2007) ]. 3. 0 Conclusion In conclusion, due to the facts given in the above sections, we believe that students should be able to participate in a vote for football as an intramural at ATCC. Also, whether the vote happens or not, football should be added to the intramural list to improve student participation, and to improve not only attendance, but grades too. 4. 0 Appendix 5. 0 Glossary Intramural-involving only students in the same school or college. That’s the only word we feel the need to define 6. 0. Works Cited Begnaud, B. (2007, February 15). The Effect of Athletic Involvement on GPA. Retrieved November 28, 2012, from Yahoo Answers: http://voices. yahoo. com/the-effect-athletic-involvement-gpa-benefits-201277. html? cat=25 Heinlien, E. (2007, October 28). The Benefits of Intramural Sports. Retrieved November 29, 2012, from Helium: http://www. helium. com/items/670511-the-benefits-of-intramural-sports Mueller, J. (2012, February 16). Do Sports Have an Affect on GPA. Retrieved November 29, 2012, from Stat Crunch: http://www. statcrunch. com/5. 0/viewreport. php? reportid=23966 Walter, T. (n. d. ). How Do Professional Sports in the US Rank in Popularity. Retrieved December 1, 2012, from Wiki Answers: http://wiki. answers. com/Q/How_do_professional_sports_in_the_US_rank_in_popularity Washington Monthly. (2010). College Guide. Retrieved December 1, 2012, from Washington Monthly: http://www. washingtonmonthly. com/college_guide/rankings_2010/community_colleges. php.

First Reflective Journal of My First Clinical Experience Essay

This journal reflects my first clinical experience at the Wascana Rehabilitation Centre. The experience has made me re-examine and analyze a lot about my path towards reaching my goal and becoming an RN. I felt that being able to touch and feel the working environment is extremely important for a future nurse and indeed for any health care provider. Real life experience is so important in learning. At first I was nervous, not yet to say scared but I found my self curious to know what the clinical setting would be like, how it would feel caring for someone unfamiliar. My nervousness quickly disappeared . I was touched and inspired to see how caring my † buddy mate† was to the residents of Wascana Rehab. There was no one who seemed strange to her, she shared her love equally with everyone. She cared for them like they were all special to her. I was so amazed to see how much a for a stranger. She made each and every resident feels like she was there for them to and not just doing her job. I then realized that no one can be strange if we see them with a human eye and welcome them with an open heart and loving manner, respecting them for who they are. In my childhood I heard about a godmother coming to the world, spreading her love to everyone and making differences in people’s life. Oh yes, I now know I can be that person who can make differences in people’s lives. What is next—-In my next clinical session i m hoping to apply everything that I learned on The first day and will try my best to further explore what can I learn to help me to build a strong foundation for my future dream career as a nurse.

Theories of Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Theories of Crime - Essay Example For instance, contemporary criminologists make use of a ‘legalistic’ instead of a ‘normative’ description of criminal behavior. A legalistic description of criminal behavior takes as its basis the legal descriptions enclosed in the penal code. The law establishes what is criminal and what is not (Thacher, 2004, 381). Criminality involves the mechanisms of law-making, law-breaking, and acting in response toward law-breaking behaviors. These three mechanisms construct an integrated series of events. In addition, criminology is a methodical study of the biological, sociological and psychological aspects of criminal behavior (Thacher, 2004). The objective of this paper is to differentiate two of the most widely used criminology theories, sociobiology and attachment theories. The strengths and weaknesses of each of these theories will also be discussed. Biological accounts concerning criminal behavior were no longer encouraging in the early twentieth century. At this point in time, criminologist started to concentrate on sociological forces toward criminal behavior such as family background, social standing, peer group, and others (Hacking, 2006). The attempt and success of these criminologists was in fact viewed and though to be commonly illogical and unfounded empirically by the leading sociologists at the time. These particular sociologists embraced the idea referred to as ‘biophobia’, which clarified that they intentionally did not pay any attention or thought to biological aspects concerning any effort to understand human nature (Hacking, 2006). The contemporary research of sociobiology has hence reinvigorated interests in locating a foundation for criminal behavior in the biological aspect. Hence if genetics really manipulate or influence behavior, then it may also be accountable for understanding whether an individual

Discussion Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Discussion - Movie Review Example He resorts to painting one of the most sarcastic pieces of work he ever did, presenting himself in the painting as the villain of peace thereby suggesting a guilty plea. His youthful life existed during the time of religious dilemma in Italy attributed to artistic symbols used by the Catholic Faithfuls in Italy (Schama 1). The fact that Catholic Faithfuls successfully shot back idolatry accusations leveled against them by the Protestants from Northern Europe offered even better environment for Caravaggio to thrive in his yet to be painting career. Caravaggio’s artistic work majorly revolved around slavish copying of surrounding phenomenon while presenting them in exactly opposite and unexpected form. For instance, he painted himself as Bacchus, the god of wine who was also a symbol of beauty and youthfulness in an opposite but similar way. His nature-twist form of art did catch attentions. He got a special invitation from Maria Del Monte, a Cardinal in Rome to move into the palazzo. However, despite the struggles, recognition and fame, Caravaggio’s life remained more or less the same. He committed murder, ended up in the wrong side of the law. Born in Spain in 1599, Velazquez grew up a talented man in painting. Humbled, relatively peaceful, and benign paintings dominated his artistic choice throughout his pieces of work. His painting reflected the ancient ways of livelihood in Southern Europe. He painted taverns cum pubs, kitchens, and contrasting family pictures showing innocent faces of both old and young alike. The paintings appeared distinct than painting could be, presenting the household picture the way it ought to appear explicit (ZCZFilms 1). Velazquez’s appreciation for the role of the family and religion in social livelihood became a major theme dominant in his paintings. The theme ranged from painting of a pub, kitchen, humbled family members, and a portrait similar to that of Virgin Mary. He valued his wife so much

Analysing Edgar Allan Poe's Short Stories The Black Cat and The Research Paper

Analysing Edgar Allan Poe's Short Stories The Black Cat and The Tell-Tale Heart - Research Paper Example African American girls and women also suffered or were exposed to various forms of racism, causing them to exhibit different reactions. This inferior image of African American women also got reflected in the fictional works as well. Most times authors in their fictional works will write what they have seen, heard, felt and lived. Those writers without fictionalizing will provide those aspects as a form of autobiography. American woman author Anne Moody wrote about the racism that happened in her life in the form of autobiography titled, Coming of age in Mississippi. So, this paper will discuss how Anne Moody in the book offers several moments and descriptions of how she learned about the meanings of race, and how she became aware of the racial differences that existed, and finally how she responded to those racial actions and differences. Anne Moody, although was born to parents who belonged to the same race, was exposed to racism because of the period and area, she lived in. Born in 1940 as Essie Mae, Moody (changed her name and) grew up in Wilkerson County, a rural county which was manifested with poverty and racism by the White population against the African Americans. Exposure to racism and different sides of racial relations from a young age itself made Moody aware of this issue, causing her to exhibit different emotions. ... Although, she was a small girl, she was intimidated and treated in a harsh manner in the household. This incident is her early exposure to racism and importantly made her award about the social hierarchy. With her biological father deserting, her step-father also proving out to be incompetent and also with her mother delivering babies quite often, Ann Moody had to take the responsibility of earning for the family. â€Å"Things seemed to get harder. Mama was always having another baby.† (). So, she worked at the White household in a suppressing environment for many hours in a day after her school timings and continuously during weekends. Along with her mother, who worked in various odd jobs offered by enterprises owned by the White population, Moody had to work in dominating White households. Doing such jobs based on race was quite demeaning and oppressing to the African population, and it was felt by Anne Moody as well. That is, as Moody worked in a suppressing white household , she understood the position of their population vis-a-vis the white population in the social hierarchy. â€Å"that not only were they better than me because they were white, but everything they owned and everything connected to them was better than hat was available to me.† (Moody 38). Anne started experiencing racism when she went to the high school, thereby experiencing different meanings of race and racial differences that existed. In the school, she became ‘racially aware’, as she was prejudiced by the White students. The one even, which disturbed her and made her understood the extreme side of racism is the murder of Emmett Till, a fourteen-year-old black boy. Hill was visiting Mississippi from Chicago, when he was lynched to

By studying the particular situation in somalia,illustrate how poverty Essay

By studying the particular situation in somalia,illustrate how poverty links with conflict and vice versa ,and suggest ways in w - Essay Example This led to a period when the country underwent a form of decentralization as independent regional governments were formed in the North by different groups (Thomashausen, 2002). The Civil War of 1986 The war against the ruling Somali government began near the end of the 1970s when the then socialist government began seeking out individuals suspected of taking part in the attempted coup d'etat of 1978 and executing them. Though the government captured many of these individuals who were military and government officials, a number of them managed to escape and flee the country (Degu, 2007). These ex officials began to form the first dissident groups that were determined to see Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, the leader of the government removed from power even if it meant the use of force. The demise of the ruling government and its army was the source of a power vacuum that was left as a result, and the main cause for the civil war that ensued thereafter as the different factions tha t had fought together to oust the Major general now fought with one another as each tried to assume control of essential regions most notably, the country’s capital (Thomashausen, 2002). ... Background of the Civil War In the year 1992, the United Nations decided to become involved in the civil war through helping those who were affected by it via providing human relief to those who were affected as well as help restore order in the country. One of the ways in which the UN strived to achieve these objectives was through operation restore hope that was handled by the 10th Mountain Division. The aim of this operation was to secure the major cities as well as access roads so to ensure that the UN were able to have safe passage to these areas to provide relief aid to thousands of innocent people who were suffering as a result of the civil war (Degu, 2007). These were individuals not involved in the fighting that was taking place, but became causalities of either way as they lost their homes and their possessions after they were forced to flee to safeguard their lives. Operation restore hope provided a safe haven for innocent Somali people who has nowhere to go and were looki ng for protection as well as help and served to give them hope for a promising future thus the reasoning behind its name (Thomashausen, 2002). Effects of the Conflict on the Country The civil war in Somalia led to a number of effects that resulted in the deterioration of the country due to the conflicts past and present that have taken place in the region. This is no surprise as no country can experience a war whether civil or with external forces and come out of it unaffected. With regard to Somalia, the effects are worse as the conflict that is taking place has been ongoing since the early 1990s to date meaning the country has not been given any time to recover from the repercussions

UPenn Wharton Business School Admission Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

UPenn Wharton Business School Admission - Essay Example The competitive Chinese real estate market and the economic bubble was not fit for the financially challenged lot, making them drop along the way or were just employed as masons, and contractors when there were many opportunities. In addition, just as Mao Zedong said that nations do not mistrust each other because they are armed, while they are armed because they do not mistrust each other. I wanted to arm the masons and empower them to get the best out of their effort. I helped them identify alternative sources of capital that they could use to help improve their financial situation. Most of my first clients are in the real estate and have been enjoying the fruits of their life. These people have known the best recipe for project management and capital valuation, they know the importance of the project, how to maximize the bottom line in all projects, how to dispose their capital equipment without losing much through trade in or recycle/reuse. Others started big construction compani es that are now tremendously successful in the maintenance of the bad roads in Vietnam. These people realized that the main secret to their life is to like what they do and not just do what they like only. In this spirit, I only want to do the things I like and decide that now is the defining moment at hand before the defining moment defines me.

Hispanic American Diversity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Hispanic American Diversity - Research Paper Example The end result is that the inhabitants of the country, whether legalized citizens or otherwise can now be classified into several distinct groups such as Whites, Hispanics, African Americans, and Asians. Hispanics now constitute the second largest classifiable ethnic group in the United States after Whites. This paper reviews the second largest ethnic group in the country, namely the Hispanics, or the Latinos as they are often commonly referred to. The Hispanics are primarily Spanish speaking immigrants from the regions south of the United States, and include immigrants from countries such as Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic. They have a lot in common even though many factors prevent a uniform classification. The clichà © ‘unity in diversity’ may not hold good here because the political, social, economic, religious, and family factors within each of these immigrants vary. Hence, this paper will also study the diversity and commonality among Hispanic groups with focus on the above mentioned factors. Every immigrant population will have a history or reason for migration to another land. In this case, history has played a diverse and decisive role in each of the above group’s large scale presence in United States’ soil. Some of them had moved because of political unrest while others have moved to exploit the better economic and social conditions that prevailed in the United States. Of the four major ethnic groups in the USA, only Mexico shares a geographical border which is nearly 2.000 miles long. Patrolling the border is a problem especially due to movement of illegal immigrants from Mexico. Schaefer (2006) in his book ‘Racial and Ethnic Groups’ records that â€Å"in the war-ending Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed February 2, 1848, Mexico acknowledged the annexation of Texas by the United States and ceded California and most of Arizona and New Mexico to the United States for $15 million† (258). This resulted

Apple Swot Essay Example for Free

Apple Swot Essay Apple is a brand which is being recognized for good reasons through out the world. â€Å"Brands are unlikely to become successful if their end motive is simply to be different, consumers demand that brands become different in a meaningful way which means delivering on that difference† (Helen Fern 2010). Apple has a great sense of creativity especially in connecting with consumers and this can be seen from the fact that even the most generic products can still be perceived to be different. There are many smart phones out there in the market but the iphone is the most recognized today. From the fact that Apple maintains a good range of products which compliment each other from the itunes online store which is an excellent source of revenue derived from sales of music and applications for Apples iphone, ipod and ipad touch devices, this is bound to bring good customer loyalty buying multiple products from Apple, some of whom may well be influenced by other people as Apple seem to have an aggressive presence on the social media networks such as facebook and twitter where the majority of consumers spend a lot of their time these days. This increases further awareness and adds strength to the brand. Apple has not in many years use celebrities to strengthen its brand which is a great deal in saving money. Instead it is the celebrities who tend to use Apple now in order to increase their income and diversify their business. This in return increases the strength of the brand almost effortlessly. A good example to this will be the Will i.am iphone cases. â€Å"Will.i.am has officially unveiled four â€Å"i.am † iPhone cases, designed to improve the Apple smartphone’s camera capabilities. The Black Eyed Peas frontman took to London’s Selfridges department store to show off the â€Å"foto.sosho† range, with the press release claiming the device, which comes in several variants, to be â€Å"the world’s first digital camera accessory and app combination designed to turn an iPhone 4 or iPhone 4S into a sophisticated point and shoot digital camera.† http://www.trustedreviews.com/news/will-i-am-launches-i-am-foto-sosho-iphone-cases Apple has won several awards in recent years and has been â€Å"voted the  overall winner of the 2012 CMO survey awards for marketing excellence, yet again Apple has been selected as a winner or co winner for five consecutive years by the sample o0f top marketers†. Christine Moorman 2012. Apple had originally followed the following points in order to create success. * Epathy – Making sure that customers needs are truly been understood more than any other company in this competitive industry. * Focus – Time management in terms of eliminating unimportant opportunities therefore a good job can be done on the chosen tasks for example deciding what to produce and then focusing on product differentiation from other producers. * Impute – Product presentation is of high importance since people always judge a book by its cover therefore, high quality product and most usefull software has to be presented in a creative proffessional manner. Apple is an innovator and technology leader Strategic Management Assignment references. http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/24/tech/mobile/heart-monitor-smartphone-app/index.html Accessed on 28-12-2012 http://techpinions.com/apple-as-innovator-three-contributions-that-changed-computing/9863 Accessed on 28-12-2012 http://www.millwardbrown.com/Global/Blog/StraightTalk.aspx http://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0312/why-pay-the-high-price-for-apple.aspx#axzz2HJhClMRf Accessen on 29-12-2012 Price http://www.trustedreviews.com/news/will-i-am-launches-i-am-foto-sosho-iphone-cases. Accessed on 28-12-2012 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2254300/Has-Google-finally-taken-bite-Apple-App-developers-switching-allegiance-search-giants-Android-software-dominates-Christmas-sales.html Accessed on 29-12-2012 http://www.millwardbrown.com/Global/Blog/Post/2012-11-14/Apple-tablet-wars-and-the-Red-Queen-Effect.aspx http://www.millwardbrown.com/Global/Blog/Post/2012-11-14/Apple-tablet-wars-and-the-Red-Queen-Effect.aspx Steve jobs being a good leader.

Fundamental Types Of Distortion Engineering Essay

Fundamental Types Of Distortion Engineering Essay The high localised heating required in welding joint edges cause non-uniform stresses in the component and lead to expansion and contraction of the heated material. Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal (heat affected zone) adjacent to the weld pool. However, tensile stresses occur on cooling when the contraction of the weld metal and the immediate heat affected zone is resisted by the bulk of the cold parent metal. The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by the volume change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling to room temperature. For example, when welding CMn steel, the molten weld metal volume will be reduced by approximately 3% on solidification and the volume of the solidified weld metal/heat affected zone (HAZ) will be reduced by a further 7% as its temperature falls from the melting point of steel to room temperature. If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation causes a permanent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the structure. Fundamental Types of Distortion Three fundamental dimensional changes that occur during the welding process cause distortion in fabricated structures: 1. Transverse shrinkage perpendicular to the weld line 2. Longitudinal shrinkage parallel to the weld line 3. Angular distortion (rotation around the weld line) These dimensional changes are shown in 1 and are classified by their appearance as follows: (a) Transverse shrinkage. Shrinkage perpendicular to the weld line (b) Angular change (transverse distortion). A non-uniform thermal distribution in the thickness direction causes distortion (angular change) close to the weld line. (c) Rotational distortion. Angular distortion in the plane of the plate due to thermal expansion. (d) Longitudinal shrinkage. Shrinkage in the direction of the weld line. (e) Longitudinal bending distortion. Distortion in a plane through the weld line and perpendicular to the plate. (f) Buckling distortion. Thermal compressive stresses cause instability when plates are thin. Figure Various types of weld distortion Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and longitudinal shrinkage. Non-uniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular distortion in addition to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage. For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal and transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the first weld deposit as a fulcrum. Hence, balanced welding in a double side V butt joint can be used to produce uniform contraction and prevent angular distortion. Similarly, in a single side fillet weld, non-uniform contraction produces angular distortion of the upstanding leg. Double side fillet welds can therefore be used to control distortion in the upstanding fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will now be produced in the plate. Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not coincident with the neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrinkage in the welds bends the section into a curved shape. Clad plate tends to bow in two directions due to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the cladding; this produces a dished shape. Dishing is also produced in stiffened plating. Plates usually dish inwards between the stiffeners, because of angular distortion at the stiffener attachment welds. In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in thin plates, resulting in dishing, bowing or rippling. Distortion due to elastic buckling is unstable: if you attempt to flatten a buckled plate, it will probably snap through and dish out in the opposite direction. Twisting in a box section is caused by shear deformation at the corner joints. This is caused by unequal longitudinal thermal expansion of the abutting edges. Increasing the number of tack welds to prevent shear deformation often reduces the amount of twisting. Angular Distortion (Hirai and Nakamura 1955) conducted an investigation to determine the values of the angular change in a free joint and the coefficient of rigidity for angular changes under various conditions. 2shows the values of angular change as a function of plate thickness, t (mm), and weight of electrode consumed per weld length, w (g/cm). In order to convert from w to the size of the fillet weld, Df (mm), the following formula may be used: Where ? = density of weld metal, ?d = deposition efficiency. The fillet size, Df, is commonly used in design work, while w is easy to determine in a welding experiment. Figure Angular change of a free fillet weld in steel The results shown in 2 were obtained using covered electrodes 5mm in diameter. The maximum angular changes were obtained when the plate thickness was around 9mm. Then the plate was thinner, the amount of angular change was reduced with the plate thickness. This is because the plate was heated more evenly in the thickness direction, thus reducing the bending moment. When the plate was thicker than 9mm, the amount of angular change was reduced as the plate thickness increased because of increased rigidity. Previous two dimensional investigations (Duffy 1970; Shin 1972) of out-of-plane distortion of welded panel structures have shown that distortion increases with span length, and size of fillet weld. The investigations also indicated that there is a peak in distortion around 10mm plate thickness with lower distortion for thicknesses of 6mm and 14mm. Buckling Distortion When thin plates are welded, residual compressive stresses occur in areas away from the weld and cause buckling. Buckling distortion occurs when the specimen length exceeds the critical length for a given thickness in a given specimen size. It is important to determine whether distortion is caused by buckling of bending. Buckling distortion differs from bending distortion in that: 1. There is more than one stable deformed shape 2. The amount of deformation in buckling distortion is much greater Since the amount of buckling distortion is large, the best way to avoid it is to properly select such structural parameters as plate thickness, stiffener spacing and welding parameters. Extensive experimental and analytical investigations described in (Masubuchi 1970) conducted at Kawasaki heavy Industry clearly indicate the existence of a critical buckling heat input for given conditions. The critical buckling heat input decreases as plate thickness decreases and free span increases. For a given panel size the critical values for the heat input, are not affected by plate thickness. The critical heat input for buckling is little affected by the difference in welding process. Longitudinal and Transverse Shrinkage Twisting Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and longitudinal shrinkage, whereas non-uniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular distortion. For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal and transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the first weld deposit as a fulcrum. Hence, balanced welding in a double side V butt joint can be used to produce uniform contraction and prevent angular distortion. Similarly, in a single side fillet weld, non-uniform contraction produces angular distortion of the upstanding leg. Double side fillet welds can therefore be used to control distortion in the upstanding fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will now be produced in the plate. Residual Stress The temperature distribution in the weldment is not uniform as a result of local heating (by most welding processes), and changes that take place as welding progresses. Heat-affected zones of the weldment and the base metal immediately adjacent to the welded area are at a temperature substantially above that of the unaffected base metal. Compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal, when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal (heat affected zone) adjacent to the weld pool. As the molten pool solidifies and shrinks, it begins to exert shrinkage stresses on the surrounding weld metal and heat-affected zone. However, tensile stresses occur on cooling when the contraction of the weld metal and the immediate heat affected zone is resisted by the bulk of the cold parent metal. Residual stresses in weldments have following two major effects: First, they produce distortion. Distortion is caused when the heated weld region contracts non-uniformly, causing shrinkage in one part of the weld to exert eccentric forces on the weld cross-section. The weldment strains elastically in response to these stresses. The distortion may appear in butt joints both as longitudinal and transverse shrinkage and as angular change (rotation) when the face of the weld shrinks more than the root. The latter change produces transverse bending in the plates along the weld length. Distortion in fillet welds is similar to that in butt welds. Transverse and longitudinal shrinkage as well as angular distortion results from the unbalanced nature of the stresses in these welds. Since fillet welds are often used in combination with other welds in a weldment, the specific resulting distortion may be complex. Secondly, residual stresses may be the cause of premature failure in weldments. If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation causes a permanent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the structure. Residual stresses The residual stresses in a component or structure are stresses caused by incompatible internal permanent strains. They may be generated or modified at every stage in the component life cycle, from original material production to final disposal. Welding is one of the most significant causes of residual stresses and typically produces large tensile stresses whose maximum value is approximately equal to the yield strength of the materials being joined, balanced by lower compressive residual stresses elsewhere in the component. Tensile residual stresses may reduce the performance or cause failure of manufactured products. They may increase the rate of damage by fatigue, creep or environmental degradation. They may reduce the load capacity by contributing to failure by brittle fracture, or cause other forms of damage such as shape change or crazing. Compressive residual stresses are generally beneficial, but cause a decrease in the buckling load. Residual stresses may be measured by non-destructive techniques, including X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction and optic magnetic and ultrasonic methods; by locally destructive techniques, including hole drilling and the ring core and deep hole methods; and by sectioning methods including block removal, splitting, slicing, layering and the contour method. The selection of the optimum measurement technique should take account of volumetric resolution, material, geometry and access. Prediction of residual stresses by numerical modelling of welding and other manufacturing processes has increased rapidly in recent years. Modelling of welding is technically and computationally demanding, and simplification and idealisation of the material behaviour, process parameters and geometry is inevitable. Numerical modelling is a powerful tool for residual stress prediction, but validation with reference to experimental results is essential. Allowing for residual stresses in the assessment of service performance varies according to the failure mechanism. It is not usually necessary to take account of residual stresses in calculations of the static strength of ductile materials. Design procedures for fatigue or buckling of welded structures usually make appropriate allowances for weld-induced residual stresses, and hence it is not necessary to include them explicitly. Residual stresses have a major effect on fracture in the brittle and transitional regimes, and hence the stress intensity, K, or energy release rate, J, due to residual stresses must be calculated and included in the fracture assessment. K or J may be obtained as a function of stress distribution, crack size and geometry by various methods, including handbook solutions, weight functions, and finite element analysis. Residual stresses in as-welded structures may be minimised by appropriate selection of materials, welding process and parameters, structural geometry and fabrication sequence. Residual stresses may be reduced by various special welding techniques including low stress non-distortion welding (LSND), last pass heat sink welding (LPHSW) or inter-run peening. They may be relaxed by thermal processes including postweld heat treatment and creep in service, or by mechanical processes including proof testing and vibratory stress relief. Different stress relief treatments are appropriate in different applications. The effectiveness of the treatment may be reduced or the residual stresses may be increased if the treatment is not applied properly. Specialised processes are available for inducing beneficial compressive residual stresses, including peening, shot blasting, induction heating stress improvement (IHSI), low plasticity burnishing (LPB) and mechanical stress improvement procedures (MSIP ).

A Look At Materialism English Language Essay

A Look At Materialism English Language Essay 1) Are young people in your country more materialistic than they were in the past? If so, do you think is a good or bad thing? If not, what are they more interested in? 2) Think of a town or place in your country that you know quite well and complete the description of that place with the usage of both neutral and colorful words to make your story interesting. Introduction Materialism is the importance placed on material possessions. Someone with a high level of materialism, described as materialistic, considers material possessions to be central to their life and their identity, and focuses a good deal of their energy on acquiring possessions. Someone with a low level of materialism, described as non-materialistic, or not materialistic, does not consider acquiring possessions to be particularly important, although they vary in the extent to which they acquire material possessions in order to meet other objectives, such as social acceptance. ANSWER QUESTION 1 Nowadays have half people like past people are not materialistic, but still have half people not like in the past and they are so materialistic. In todays society, materialism takes part in every persons life, no matter what social class they are. The idea of being materialistic can be considered immoral, but there is a fine line between morality and personal interests, so now is to see the people In the past, people are not in competition with one another, because in the past people is more stable life, they feel that there is sufficient enough to eat and enough to stay are already satisfy, moreover And they will not buy a lot of items not worth things. But nowadays people but now there is growing materialistic, Like to buy items not worth a lot, become very materialistic. I think now society people become so materialistic is a bad thing. Because material impact on society is a complex issue. Materialism can be defined as a desire to pursue wealth and other real things that can prov ision, ignoring the importance of spiritual values, the dominance of material comfort. This substance is characterized by the people for money, greed, the tendency to become rich quickly, even if it involves a lot of risk. It also includes a desire to live in mansions, wearing very expensive clothes, jewelry and driving flashy cars. In short, I expect to live in luxury. Effects of Materialism on Society is materialism and greed lead to personal satisfaction with social life echoed many of the most important aspect. Mood, made because of materialism, greed, the economic problems caused by the real world. The real problem may not be so simple, but it may be one of the reasons here. Greed is not confined to money, and the acquisition of power. Where there is power, corruption is imminent. One other negative emotions, desires, selfishness, jealousy, a lot of loss of sensation of materialism, to make people forget their moral values, often do not understand the difference between the only difference between the crime is an important choice. Good quality and comfort is wrong. They believe that everything around is the environment, their beliefs are to provide the human need is based on the conclusions of science they have lost faith in God, because they refused to believe anything, we can not see or hear or touch is the worst. Therefore, they come to the crimes committed after their senses. Therefore, the materialism, the negative impact of user groups. Suggestions for Restructuring our Society is we still make our world towards a better run. Therefore, we need to find purpose in our lives. Everyone needs to make some changes to his views. We want from the material world itself. This will allow the two sides, with or without the material things we have, we want happiness. This will enable us to think, If I put a good thing, but if I did not understand I said, it does not matter. This is not so easy, we want to set a friendly spirit, but not impossible task. Gave us the economic rough stage some valuable lessons. As a result, the whole world, we can go buy a couple of days, but we are still in our power to survive difficult circumstances, the real thing. We are very pleased that we can not lose ourselves, support our families. Than the material things of life more important than others do. We must give top priority to work hard, not every fast road to success. There is truth, honesty and hard work meaning, can give us a very satisfyi ng relationship. We need to improve our reality, rather than the substance of knowledge. In our non-material aspects of life is the main reason is lack of understanding, not only individuals, but as a social collective. Spirituality can help us understand our true identity. If we lose the wealth of alternative, but if we lose ourselves, we can not be replaced. You can also refer to the creation of the theory for more information. A practical solution to these problems, whether economic or otherwise, can be obtained by introspection. We can find out what caused the problems we face, but we are today. Fixed out of the material world of their own, recognizing that true self in your sleep. This is to prevent the real growth in the community mental block. Finally they more interested is money to materialistic. Because young people feel that money can buy to meet their own, such as cars, clothes, trousers, watches, shoes, mobile phones, video games. Some younger love to buy brand-name, not the brand name with no interest, they feel that is good with good to enjoy with a brand name, giving a new generation of young people to be adversely affected. ANSWER QUESTION 2 Cameron Highland was named after and discovered in 1885 by an English man named William Cameron during a survey operation in the Titiwangsa Mountain Range. Forging a path through the dense vegetation, he finally reached a magnificent and sublime plateau shut up in the mountains. From then on, the British colonists recognized its potential for growing tea, a precious commodity then. Over time, townships began to sprout around Cameron Highlands as the tea plantations grew. After Malaysias independence, its popularity as a highland holiday retreat steadily rose (Though the idea was already implanted in 1925 by British Official Sir George Maxwell). Today, it is a popular tourist destination to visit on holiday, due to it cooling atmosphere, serene environment and picturesque scenery. The Cameron Highlands is part of Pahang state, though most entry points, via Tapah and Simpang Pulai, lie in Perak state. From Ringlet to Brinchang, the Cameron Highlands is mostly cooling throughout the yea r, enabling visitors to enjoy a holiday here anytime. In terms of culture, the Chinese make up the largest community in Cameron Highlands, running most of the businesses and plantations in the valley. Indians and Malays from the next two largest communities with similiar economic activities. There are also a large number of labourers from Bangladesh and Myanmmar, who come to work the fields of tea and vegetables. Finally, you can also find tourists from places like Europe and Asia that have decided to settle down in the Cameron Highlands and call it their home. Cameron Highlands is the only holiday destination in Malaysia where strawberries are grown and harvested commercially. The strawberry farms found here are also open for visitors, making them one of the top tourist attractions in Cameron Highlands. The farms are great places for shopping products made from strawberries, such as jams and tarts. The best season to enjoy strawberries is usually from April till June, the driest months. The Cameron Highland tea plantations are its hallmark of fame and one of the reasons why this place is so popular as a holiday destination among locals even. Tea plantations carpet the surrounding valleys in a fine layer of yellow green tea leaves, and most of them are open to tourists and visitors who can purchase their own tea bags, watch workers pluck tea as well as enjoy a simmering hot cup of tea with scones. Tea was the reason William Cameron saw potential and founded this valley, which eventually became Malaysias top highland holiday destination. The Night Market in Brinchang is an important fixture in the time table of Cameron Highlands. Also called Pasar Malam, which means night bazaar, the Brinchang Night Markets takes place of Friday and Saturday nights, during peak tourist seasons and national holidays or festivals, the night market will open throughout the week in response to the good business and flood of visitors from Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and all over. The Bee Farms in Cameron Highlands allow visitors and tourists to see how honey is cultivated here from bees on a moderate scale. The delicious nectar is harvested from the combs made by bees that are housed in an elevated wooden box. One such honey bee farm is located near Ringlet, in a secluded corner reached from a narrow alley branching off the main road. If you want to shoot landscapes at Cameron Highland, I can introduction some beautiful place to shoot. Boh Tea is the largest tea producer in the Cameron Highlands. Like Bharat, it also has two estates, but most people will only visit the Sungai Palas estate in Brinchang. The other tea field lies near Ringlet in a place called Habu. The Boh Tea estate in Sungai Palas is an awesome place to visit, with fields of tea growing around hills that seem to stretch for miles. As this is the highest tea estate in the Cameron Highlands, mist creeping over the landscape is a common feature. The road will end at a T-junction; right leads to Boh Tea Center while left goes all the way up to Gunung Brinchang. Boh also has the only factory open for visitors to look and marvel at the processes and methods used in the production of tea. In the Lake House is a stunning colonial architecture of the slender ring of the boutique hotel. This is the second most expensive place to stay the night in the Camero n Highlands. Price range is matched only in the Cameron Highlands Resort Tanah Rata and Brinchang than between. Asian tourists, however, this colonial mansion living digging, because it evokes a feeling of living in Europe. In the small ring, located in the Lake House Hotel for the dam but there are some dark, dense forest looking for it in the background. In addition, there are many tourist attractions in Cameron Highlands. Finally, In the Cameron Highlands is a beautiful, cool weather and climate is a good place. As Cameron and more tourist attractions, so there are big festivals and holidays, many people will choose to Cameron over a holiday, especially to a hot summer day, people will choose to Cameron summer. Conclusion Recommendation Cameron Highlands is the smallest district in the state of Pahang which is located in the north-western corner of the state. One of the wonders of Malaysia, it is the largest and most famous hill resort in the country. This highland paradise still retains much of the charm of an English village. Being a primarily agricultural domain, you will find an abundance of vegetables and fruits farms here. Cameron Highlands is also the leading producer of flowers and tea in Malaysia. Be prepared for a lovely sight of extraordinary flowers you wont see flourishing elsewhere in Malaysia! At Cameron Highland can feel very enjoy and relax. Bibliograph Cameron Highland, online, retrieved 12 March 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_Highlands Cameron Highland Strawberry Farm, online, retrieved 12 March 2011 from http://www.strawberryparkresorts.com/about-the-resort.html Cameron Highland Lakehouse, online, retrieved 12 March 2011 from http://www.lakehouse-cameron.com/index.php

Grand Avenue Essay -- essays papers

Grand Avenue In the novel Grand Avenue. Greg Sarris uses the theme thread of poison to connect all of his separate stories about the Toms’, a Pomo Indian family. He proves that the roots of a family are the basis which gives the family its structure, even if those roots are bad. In the Toms’ family they’re roots were poisoned from the very founding of the family starting with Sam Toms’. His poison was not the fact that he tried to steal a married woman away, but that he was filled with secrets, deceptions, and self hatred. His family was founded on these poisened roots and passes the poisen down generation after gerneration. The only way to stop the poison, or inner self hatred taken out in other forms, was to let go of past and talk about the secrets and lies. Once a person does this they are able to learn from their mistake , in a sense the break free from the poison. If Sam Toms’ , the founder or root of the family,would have broken free of his poise n by talking about his mistake he made, his whole family per haps would have turned out completely different. As a result of his secrets and lies his family was rasied to make the same immoral desisions as he made throughout his life. His family, like Sam, didn't take responcilblity for their mistakes, which spread the poison onto the next generation. Tracing the poison throughout the Tom’s beginning at the roots, shows just how important the roots indeed are. In the first story, entitled The Magic Pony, one learns about the â€Å"Man Poison†. The story is narrated by Jasmine, who lives with her Auntie Faye Faye tells her daughter Ruby and Jasmine that all men are poisoned because of a mistake from her past She stole her cousin Anna’s boyfriend Joaquin, by lying t... ...d few such as Anna, Stella, and Alice who broke free of the poison, lived their lives as Sam Toms’ did who rooted the family. They as he did lied, cheated, manipuled, and kept secrets to try to live a happy life which in actuality their lives were anything but. The strong Toms’ that broke free of the poison spoke of their problems and took responsibility for them. The rest just followed in their ancestors footsteps and lived unhappy and immoral lives as they did. The Toms’ family poison connected the whole family, generation after generation together, and helps to prove how important an influential a families’ roots really are.footsteps and lived unhappy and immoral lives as they did. The Toms’ family poison connected the whole family, generation after generation together, and helps to prove how important an influential a families’ roots really are.

Professional, Ethical and Legal issues in nursing Essay -- Health Care

According to American Nurses Association (ANA), (2010) â€Å"the nurse promotes, advocates for and strives to protect the heath, safety and right of the patient† (p. 6). Nursing responsibilities should be acted at the highest standard and must be based on legal and ethical obligations. Healthcare provider’s perception and judgment in the patient’s well being as well as taking into account the right of the patient in every action is one of the key elements in nursing practice. International Council of Nurses (ICN), (2006) states â€Å"The nurse at all times maintains standards of personal conduct which reflect well on the profession and enhance public confidence† (p. 3). Furthermore, nursing action guided by theory and principles of moral and legal rights complements excellent nursing care. Nurse’s awareness in moral and legal codes helps them control the complicated scenario encountered and direct the nurses in the best possible action answerable by law (Lachman, 2006). In this essay the author will rationalize the relevance of professional, ethical and legal regulations in the practice of nursing. The author will discuss and analyze the chosen scenario and critically review the action taken in the expense of the patient and the care workers. In addition, the author will also evaluates the strength and limitations of the scenario in a broader issue with reasonable judgement supported by theories and principles of ethical and legal standards. In accordance with Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC), (2008) all identifiable details have been changed in accordance with (NMC, 2010). The author as a healthcare assistant working in the nursing home will present a scenario of Mrs. Keller (not her real name) who is confined in the dementia u... ...r investigation and then devise a plan for best possible action recognizing the rights of the patient and its benefits followed by the application of the chosen intervention with positive outcome in mind (Wells, 2007). Delivery of excellent and quality of care at constant level (NMC, 2008) must be marked in any responsibilities and duties of the care provider to promote exceptional nursing practice Codes of nursing ethics and legal legislation have addressed almost all the necessary action in making decision in consideration to the best interest of the patient. Nurses must make sure that they are all guided by the set standard to lead their action and produced desirable and ethically sound outcome. However, it is realistic to acknowledge that there are some instances that moral act contradict legal act, in this case, the principle of prima facie can be applied.

Comparisim of Sanitation Facilities Within Informal Settlements

COMPARISON OF LOW COST SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES PROVIDED TO INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS Mthunzi Rubuluza (Fill your name in under â€Å"Prepare, Properties, Doc Properties, Advanced†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and update this field) Student Number 200732536 A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the BTech Degree in Civil Engineering† Cape Town 23 September 2011 Declaration I, Mthunzi Rubuluza declare that this research dissertation is my own unaided work. It is being submitted for the BTech Degree at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town.It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other University. _______________________________________________ (Signature) Signed in Cape Town this _____________ day of ______________________ 2011 Abstract The influx of migrants to cities is placing a huge burden to infrastructure delivery in the Western Cape. This burden leads to the need for shelter and that in turn means that land is invaded illegally. The population now creates informal settlements. The rise of informal settlements leads to the lack of basic infrastructure such as water and sanitation.The environmental impact increases like pollution and that increases human health and gives rise to air-bone disease. As a result people tend to use open fields to defecate, illegal dumping, discharge of untreated waste water into wrong streams. The full range of technical options for providing adequate basic sanitation is still not widely known nor are the characteristics of the different options well understood. In particular, there is little appreciation of the long-term financial, environmental and institutional implications of operating and maintaining the various sanitation systems.As a result, in many cases communities and local governments are choosing technical options that, in the long term, are unaffordable and/or unsustainable. C hallenges arise from the wide range of options available and the differing environments and conditions to which each is suited. On-site sanitation is the main form of excreta disposal in most sub-Saharan African cities and will remain the most appropriate level of service for the urban poor in the medium term. Despite heavy public investment in sewerage systems in most primary and some secondary cities, typically only 10-15% of the urban population benefit from access to the sewer network.About 80% of the urban population depends on on-site facilities such as septic tanks and pit latrines which, unlike sewers, are usually the responsibility of households. Acknowledgements I would like to humbly acknowledge everybody who supported me with prayers and encouragement My supervisor, Mr. C. Muanda, thank you for your mentorship and guidance The group members for the support they gave me when hope was gone. My friends who opened up their house for me to become a study area My Family, thank you for your guidance and teachings My dear wife, I love you, thank you for being there for me, supporting me andMostly to my God, thank you Father for giving me strength every day Table of Contents Page Declarationii Abstractiii Acknowledgementsiv Table of Contentsv List of Figuresviii List of Tablesix List of Symbolsx Terms and conceptsxi Chapter 1Introduction1 1. 1Background and Motivation1 1. 2Research problem1 1. 3Research Question1 1. 4Objectives and outcomes2 1. 5Significance2 1. 6Delineation2 1. 7Assumptions2 1. 8Methodology2 1. 9Organisation of dissertation3 Chapter 2Literature review and theory4 2. 1Introduction4 2. 2Purpose of Sanitation Technologies4 2. 2. 1Planning Principles for Sanitation Facilities4 . 3Selection of Appropriate Sanitation Technologies6 2. 3. 1Low cost sanitation technology6 2. 3. 2Institutional technologies for sanitation6 2. 4Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities7 2. 4. 1Types of Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities7 2. 4. 2Wet system7 2. 5Operatio nal Requirements8 2. 5. 1Dry system8 2. 6Implementation Challenges in South Africa8 2. 6. 1Implementation Challenges at Provincial level9 2. 6. 2Implementation Challenges at City level9 2. 6. 3Implementation challenges within community and household level9 2. 7Types of Sanitation Facilities10 2. 7. 1Improved sanitation facilities10 . 7. 2Unimproved sanitation facilities10 2. 7. 3Unimproved sanitation (bucket system)10 2. 7. 4Improved sanitation (Septic tank)10 2. 8On-site sanitation11 2. 9Off-site sanitation11 2. 10Sanitation Guidelines for End-user11 2. 11Planning and Design for Sanitation by Local Authorities12 2. 11. 1Implementation process during planning12 2. 12Sanitation Provision Policy12 2. 13Costs13 2. 13. 1Cost on various levels13 2. 14Conclusion13 2. 15References15 Chapter 3Research methodology16 3. 1Research design16 3. 2Research methodology16 3. 2. 1Data16 3. 2. 2Data Collection16 3. 2. 3Research Equipment17 . 3Methodology17 3. 3. 1Objective 1 – To investigate av ailable sanitation technologies provided to informal settlement from operational, design, maintenance and cost. 17 3. 3. 2Objective 218 3. 3. 3Objective 3 – Selection of the suitable option18 3. 4Semi Structured Interviews19 Chapter 4Discussion20 4. 1Types of Sanitation Technologies20 4. 1. 1Dry toilets20 4. 1. 2MobiSan (Mobile Sanitation)21 4. 1. 3Conservancy tank21 4. 1. 4VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit)22 4. 2On-site Sanitation22 4. 2. 1Pour flush slabs22 4. 2. 2Communal or shared technologies23 4. 2. 3Septic Tank24 4. 3Design24 4. Manufactures Cost25 4. 4. 1MobiSan toilets25 4. 4. 2Pre-cast toilets25 4. 5Photographs25 Figure 4. 1 Cluster of communal toilets26 4. 6STATS SA26 4. 6. 1Population census 200126 Chapter 5Discussion28 5. 1Sanitation Technology Options28 5. 2Operation and Maintenance29 5. 3Selection of an Appropriate Technology30 5. 3. 1Key issues raised for selection appropriate technology30 5. 4Sanitation Provision Approach31 5. 4. 1Supply driven sanitation31 5. 4. 2Demand driven sanitation31 5. 5Performance of these Sanitation Facilities31 There is not enough space due to the density of the settlements. 40 5. Guidelines and Policy42 5. 6. 1Strategy for Sanitation Services to Informal Settlements42 5. 6. 2Costing Guideline for Sanitation Facilities42 5. 7Basic Sanitation Policy Principles44 1. Sanitation must respond to the demands of communities and should link to improved hygiene awareness. For people to benefit from sanitation improvements, everybody must understand the link between their own health, good hygiene and toilet facilities. 44 2. Communities must be fully involved in projects. DWAF is only the regulator. Citizens have rights but also responsibilities in taking charge of their own health. 4 3. Sanitation must be provided in conjunction with water supply and other municipal services. 44 4. Sanitation is more than just toilets; it must be accompanied by environmental and health education. 44 5. Access to basic sanitation is a huma n right. 44 6. Local government has the constitutional responsibility to provide access to sanitation services. 44 7. Scarce public funds must be prioritised to help those most at risk. 44 8. Limited national funds should be fairly distributed throughout the country. 44 9. Water has an economic value and must be protected through sanitation. 44 10.Polluters must pay to clean up the water and the environment they have polluted. 44 11. Sanitation must be financially sustainable. 44 12. The environment must be protected when sanitation systems are set up and run. 44 5. 7. 1What will the Basic Household Policy Achieve? 44 CHAPTER 6 Recommendation and Conclusion45 References47 Appendices48 Appendix A. Questionnaire for users48 List of Figures Page Body Figure 2. 1 Sample Figure CaptionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2. 2 [Replace this text with your own caption – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change figure numbering or caption style]Error!Bookmar k not defined. Figure 2. 3 [Replace this text with your own caption – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change figure numbering or caption style]Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2. 4 Replace this text with your own caption – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change figure numbering or caption style – these are Blue Hills –don’t put them or Blue Sky stuff in your dissertation. (Name, 2007)Error! 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Table C. 2 Another appendix table example49 Table C. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table C. 4 Another appendix table example49 Table D. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table D. 2 Another appendix table example49 Table D. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table D. 4 Another appendix table example49 List of Symbols Constants ab| Distance between mid-ch ord and elastic axis(mm)| | B| Airfoil half-chord(mm)| | C| Non-dimensional distance between airfoil mid-chord and flap hinge line(-)| | U| Free stream velocity(m/s)| | W| Flexure width(mm)| |X| Distance along span(mm)| | x? | Non-dimensional distance between airfoil pitch axis and airfoil cg(-)| | x? | Non-dimensional distance between flap hinge axis and flap cg(-)| | | | | Greek letters ?| Pitch angle (rad)| | ?| Flap angle (rad)| | | Commanded flap angle (rad)| | ?| Tensile stress (MPa)| | ?| Shear stress (MPa)| | ?| Flutter frequency in (rad/s)| | | | | Subscripts/superscripts A| Aerodynamic| | H| Related to plunge degree of freedom| | ?| Related to pitch degree of freedom| | ?| Related to flap degree of freedom| | S| Structural| | W| Wing| | T| Flutter frequency in (rad/s)| | | | | Terms and conceptsVIP| Ventilated Improvement Pit| UDS| Urine Diversion System| Eco San| Ecological Sanitation| MCSF| Mobile Community Sanitation Facility| MO| Municipal Officer| IS| Informal Settle ment| MobiSan| Mobile Sanitation| AB| Ablution Block| Introduction The main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. In order to be sustainable a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally appropriate, but it should also protect the environment and the natural resources.When improving an existing and/or designing a new sanitation system, sustainability criteria related to the following aspects should be considered, health, includes the risk of exposure to pathogens and hazardous substances that could affect public health at all points of the sanitation system from the toilet via the collection and treatment system to the point of reuse or disposal. This literature review covers types of sanitation, characteristics of sanitation, sanitation provision policy, criteria for selection of sanitation, conclusion. Backgroun d and MotivationThe influx of migrants to cities is placing a huge burden to infrastructure delivery in the Western Cape. This burden leads to the need for shelter and that in turn means that land is invaded illegally. The population now creates informal settlements. The rise of informal settlements leads to the lack of basic infrastructure such as water and sanitation. The environmental impact increases like pollution and that increases human health and gives rise to air-bone disease. As a result people tend to use open fields to defecate, illegal dumping, discharge of untreated waste water into wrong streams.Informal settlements by their nature are quite densely populated and access through the settlement is quite hard. Basic services are larking due to the fact there are no structures that govern the raise of settlements and the need to deliver basic sanitation services increases. There is a huge need to analyse which technology functions within the limits experienced in informal settlements. Research problem The influx of migrants from rural area impoverished and densely populated areas in South Africa towards prosperous regions is creating immense pressures on the existing infrastructure.The conditions of life to informal settlements tend to be poor, with low mobility, and difficult access to health, education, recreation and sanitation. Informal settlements are created without planning and basic infrastructure. Due to the large number of sanitation technologies available and dynamic of these informal settlements, the choice of suitable and sustainable sanitation technology is of utmost importance. Currently, sanitation services provided are not accepted by settlers. Where it is supplied, it is vandalised or misused.This results in unnecessary pressure on decision makers to provide adequate sanitation and loss of investment. Research Question Which is the most practical low cost sanitation technology that can be provided for informal settlements in the We stern Cape? Objectives and outcomes The aim of this work is to investigate the existing sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements in the Western Cape. To investigate available sanitation technologies provided in informal settlement (Cape Flats) technology by outlying, (advantages & disadvantages) from operational, design, maintenance and cost perspective.To classify the types of sanitation according to the characteristics; (dry or wet sanitation; individual or communal). To select the most suitable sanitation options. Recommend the most suitable option. A questioner will be used to find view points of the community within informal settlements. Operational costs and Structural costs per unit Significance This study intends to provide a Better Understanding of sanitation facilities within the Western Cape within informal settlements and to compare the cost implications of such facilities. DelineationThis study will focus only on the sanitation facilities within informal settlements in the Western Cape. The research will compare sanitation facilities provided for highly serviced areas within the Western Cape and the design for formal settlements will be mentioned. Assumptions The expected results of the study are as follow: †¢An overview of sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements †¢Outline key criteria used for selecting the area for the technology †¢Provide a cost effective sanitation technology for informal settlements MethodologyThere will be three (3) informal settlements around the Western Cape that will be selected based on the type of sanitation provided. (Kuyasa, New Crossroad and Nyanga). Field visits will be conducted to look at each sanitation type provided for the people of that particular informal settlement. Visual assessment will used as a way of assessing the facilities at selected case study sites. The assessment will be done with the following: -Design -Operation -Maintenance operations & cost effec tiveness -Interview with a Water & Sanitation official -Views of usersOrganisation of dissertation Here you must describe briefly how the dissertation unfolds. Don’t just list the chapter headings – say a little about each one. Introduce the chapters in the order in which they appear and give an overview of the main points considered in each, except for your introduction (Chapter 1) of which this is the last section i. e. it is reasonable to assume this introduction has just been read. Simply state what is covered in each chapter and in what order, to reveal the logic and structure of the dissertation. Do not give any proofs, arguments or results here.Complete this section last to ensure it describes the dissertation accurately. Literature review and theory This chapter is about the comparison of low cost sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements Introduction The main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. In order to be sustainable a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally appropriate, but it should also protect the natural resources and the environment.When improving an existing or designing a new sanitation system, sustainable aspects should be considered. Institutional appropriateness, sanitation technologies should be managed at the lowest appropriate level, such as municipalities. The household is a major factor in sustaining human health and the environment. Beneficiary communities from the provision of sanitation technologies, or from improvements to existing sanitation technologies, must be partners in the planning, implementation and, where appropriate, operation and maintenance of these technologies or improvements.Of course, sanitation planning cannot be done in a wholly decentralized way: there has to be a coherent city-wide approach to sanitation , but the planning process has to take into account the views of the intended beneficiaries and recognise that the sanitation solutions for very poor, poor and non-poor households are likely to be very different. Affordable sanitation technologies must be affordable for the households using them. In the Western Cape in particular consideration must be given to the affordability of sanitation technologies for poor and very poor households.Purpose of Sanitation Technologies Background The prime purpose of a sanitation system is to break the disease cycle caused by the bacteria in human excreta. To do so, the system has to combat exposure to infection through all the stages from the generation of excreta to their final disposal or reuse. It is important to emphasise again that human behaviour is crucial and fostering behavioural change is a key component of sanitation system planning. In this chapter, though, we are concerned with the functional elements of the system.While individual components will vary considerably with local circumstances and will differ from community to community, the division into elements creates flexibility and choice in developing appropriate solutions. Planning Principles for Sanitation Facilities There are a few principles that lead to beneficial changes for the community and the city as a whole. Below are the six (6) principles for affective strategic planning: 1. Respond on sound finance Service provision should respond to what the potential user wants and willing to pay for. 2. Focus on sound financesIntended users’ willingness to pay for sanitation systems will not be possible for expansion for facilities required. 3. Develop incentives for good practice Individuals and organisations act in a way that ensures the on-going availability of functioning sanitation services need to be incentives for good practice. 4. Involve stakeholders in appropriate ways Groups, individuals and organisation with an interest in some particular subject, in this case sanitation become stakeholders. All stakeholders need to be involved in developing policy context for sanitation acting as intermediaries between service user and service providers. . Take a wide view of sanitation Stakeholders should look beyond local solutions to narrowly defined problems and recognise the links between different sanitation services. Excreta disposal, solid waste management and drainage are interrelated and the impact of improvements in one will be reduced if they are carried out without regard to the others. 6. Take management steps towards intermediate objectives This principle is derived from the incremental approach to the development and implementation of strategies identified, when considering steps of improving set objectives.ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIRDED FOR SANITATION PURPOSES Five elements which need to be considered separately are as follows: †¢ The toilet – there is a wide range of latrines, water closets, urine-diversion toilets, etc. , that may be considered, depending on local circumstances. †¢ The collection system – septic tanks, pits, vaults, drums, may be appropriate in different environments. †¢ Transportation – large or small sewer systems, motorised, mechanical or manual haulage may need to be considered. Treatment – systems vary from sophisticated wastewater treatment plants and sludge digestion to simple composting systems and soil filtration. †¢ Use of sanitation products – urine, composted excreta and biogas are all important resources. If all five (5) elements for sanitation are adhered too then, Health, which is one of the aspects which include the risk of exposure to hazardous substances and pathogens that could affect public health at all points of the sanitation system from the toilet via the collection and treatment system to the point of reuse or disposal.Aspects such as hygiene, nutrition and improvement of livelihood achieved by the ap plication of a certain sanitation system, as well as downstream effects needs to be prioritized. Selection of Appropriate Sanitation Technologies The selection of appropriate sanitation technologies within informal settlements either locally (SA) or internationally, should be considered. . The physical environment and technical feasibility in which it can be installed (sanitation facility) for example; consideration has to be given for (altitude, ground slopes, soils, hydrogeology, housing density, liability to flooding and local climate.The selection must also be compatible both with local socio-cultural practices and preferences and with local socio-economic conditions, with the ability to pay for the sanitation arrangement selected and also willingness to pay for services rendered. Any selected low cost sanitation for any given community has to comply with the six (6) principles for sustainable sanitation. Low cost sanitation technology Sanitation is divided into two broad groups : on site and off site systems.The technologies are further divided into three (3) reuse categories: centralized reuse, intermittent reuse and decentralized reuse and these leads to different sets of sanitation solutions. Household or local community level is Decentralized reuse (a house block). Natural drainage basins within an urban area are Centralized reuse level (town, city), wastewater collection is required followed by wastewater treatment. Pit latrines, pour-flush toilets and septic tanks are all intermittent reuse which refers to on-site systems. Conventional sewerage is not covered as it is too expensive for informal settlements (IWA, 2004).Service delivery in a recent inventory indicates that most of the informal settlements are severely lagging behind in sanitation coverage. Government’s current approach is to aim to supply informal settlements with toilets to be shared within five (5) households. Most of the toilets are locked and their maintenance relies on the users. In the Western Cape especially in the Cape Flats area the types of toilets that are mostly used are chemical (Nyanga) and bucket system (New cross) as shared facilities while VIP and UDS are considered as individual facilities.The options mentioned are not always available or suitable for the informal settlements due to the nature of the settlements. These services are considered as emergency services but however remain with the communities for a long period of time (Mel’s et al, 2009). Institutional technologies for sanitation Institutional technologies for sanitation within South African government structures need to incorporate accountability. During the planning phase all sanitation technologies are prone to mismanagement (including sanitation selection).An assessment for the comparison of sanitation technology needs to include, who is responsible for what and the likelihood that these responsibilities can and will be effectively discharged over the appropriate tim eframes (short, medium and long term commitments). A non-prescriptive professional attitude and in depth local knowledge is required for assessment purposes (Mara et al, 2001). Comparison of the two arrangements is vital because they deal with people and government entities on how to handle sanitation. The CoCT plays a critical role in identifying the need for sanitation in each community. Mobile Communal Sanitation FacilitiesDue to the ever increasing need for free land and lack of space in our urban areas, alternative technologies in order to meet the sanitation demand and respond to the communities need to be made available. Temporary sanitation facilities such as the Mobile Communal Sanitation Facility (MCSF) have been introduced recently in areas where sanitation is to take place (Muanda, 2010). Types of Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities Mobile Communal Sanitation Facility (MCSF) varies in terms of their design, operational and use requirements. MCSF can be classified accor ding to their operational requirements.In practice the common types that are found are either dry (not requiring water) and wet (requiring water). A system that uses both scenarios has been identified as an improvement solution dealing with various situations. Wet system This type of system requires water for its operation. There are several types of such systems that are being used throughout the world and in Africa such as the DMT (dignified mobile toilet). There are solar powered toilets, sewer connected mobile toilet. Mostly in South Africa the most commonly used system is the Kayaloo and Mobisan (Parkison et al, 2008). Dry systemThis type of sanitation system does not require water for its operation. There are a few in South Africa such as the Mobile Pit toilet. In the international arena the following system for dry systems technologies include the wheel toilet (Burkina Faso), composting mobile toilet (France), tricycle toilet (India and Sri Lanka) {Pickford, 1995}. Combined s ystem This type of system is a dual system that can be used as dry or wet sanitation; it can operate without the availability of water or sewer. In the international arena, the NMT (Nepal Mobile Toilet) is the commonly used system under this category (Parkison et al, 2008).South African perception of MCSF The perception of users of mobile sanitation facilities are context based. The most preferred type of sanitation in South Africa is the individual full waterborne flush toilet. Communities within informal settlements are demanding that this type of sanitation should be provided to them at any cost regardless of the type of topography, shelter or the status of the land occupied. MCSF are seen by communities that the level of service is closer to that off the full flush toilet despite the communal status of the facility and communities are comfortable using it.Communities believe that this type of sanitation provides dignity and privacy compared to other types of sanitation in the ar eas. The slow pace of delivery and the long waiting for the provision of the individual sanitation has changed people’s perception recently. Most of the communities feel that the type of technology brought for a temporary basis has turned up to be a permanent solution (Grootboom, 2010). Operational Requirements City of Cape Town (CoCT) for example most of the settlements (75%) are located on land that is owned by the municipality and a large share which is (22%) is located in private lands.Consent from the owner has to be obtained by the Water Services Department in order to deliver services on site. Permission by many owners is not given due the fact that communities will make their temporally settlement a permanent one. A major constraint for sanitation service provision is the high density of settlements. Dry system The operation of this system does not require water for its operation and this is how the dry system is defined. Dry mobile sanitation system requires a locati on where the facility needs to be installed and the disposal point or discharging excreta when the box is full at the bottom of the system for cleaning purposes (Scandura & Sobsey,1997). 2. 5. 2 Wet system The wet system for mobile sanitation requires water and sewer in order to make the system operational. A toilet bowl is connected under this sanitation system using a pipe linking to the sewer or septic tank. The system depends on water and cannot function if water is not available. In cases where there is no sewer line, the wastewater is pumped out and taken to a disposal site (Dorrigton, 2000). 2. 5. Combined system The combined system was designed to overcome the unavailability of water and the effects that can happen to the operation of such a system. It combines both systems and can be operated without water and with water (Parkison et al, 2008). Implementation Challenges in South Africa Communities in needy areas are waiting for the implementation of sanitation technology th at will provide dignified sanitation to them. The success for the implementation should be designed in such that all the parameters of the technology are not compromised.In the past the focus was mainly on the technology of the sanitation facility, and recently the attention has shifted to the implementation methods of sanitation technologies. Implementation means the process of introduction of sanitation in communities, not necessary the design, but the development process of sanitation. Introduction of the strategy and approach towards the community is vita (Classen, 2003). Professionals in this field feel that the implementation plan should have the environment as the first priority, then after the technical aspects to meet he human societal needs, and finally the economic requirements with these communities. It has become clear from, human societal needs are important and technology must help achieve this basic needs (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation Challenges at Provincial lev el The role of the provincial government needs to be clarified in the funding of urban infrastructure investments and the planning and the delivery of sanitation services is of utmost importance. A key challenge is the lack of capacity for sanitation promotion and progress monitoring.Evasion of funds that are exclusively allocated to sanitation is affecting service provision (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation Challenges at City level Key challenges at municipal levels are related to the following issues: The lack of mechanisms bearing in mind the range of organizations that have a stake in sanitation for inter-agency collaboration on planning and service delivery. Not all municipalities at present accept that there is a problem with excreta disposal. For the achievements of national sanitation goals there is a lack of incentives and accountability.There is a shortage of capacity within the municipality in infrastructure development, planning, service delivery and sanitation promotion . Poorly understood and complicated mechanisms for accessing and allocating capital funds. The private sectors service delivery and maintenance in the safe removal, treatment and disposal of septic tank is under-developed and unregulated. Existing infrastructure is poorly maintained and operated (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation challenges within the community and household level Communities need to play a role as the intended usurers in the implementation of sanitation facilities.The challenge occur at this level, when limited appreciation of the need for safe disposal of wastewater. In most cases those that occupy land illegally are excluded from municipal projects and planning processes thus posing threats to the provision or implementation of sanitation services (Classen, 2003). For any technology to be embraced by the community they have to be involved from the inception phase, design phase and during the construction phase so that they can embrace the services being rendered b y government institutions.CoCT and Local government face a huge back log of housing projects that can play a role in elevating sanitation stumbling blocks within informal settlements. Implementation challenges within community and household level Communities need to play a role as the intended usurers in the implementation of sanitation facilities. The challenge occur at this level, when limited appreciation of the need for safe disposal of wastewater. In most cases those that occupy land illegally are excluded from municipal projects and planning processes thus posing threats to the provision or implementation of sanitation services (Classen, 2003).For any technology to be embraced by the community they have to be involved from the inception phase, design phase and during the construction phase so that they can embrace the services being rendered by government institutions. CoCT and Local government face a huge back log of housing projects that can play a role in elevating sanitati on stumbling blocks within informal settlements. Types of Sanitation Facilities The type of sanitation facilities listed below can be found throughout the Western Cape.The type of technology used for a particular settlement depends on the following elements which determine the final product being utilised i. e. topography, population, water resource and availability of the facility. Improved sanitation facilities This are facilities which are not shared or public, for example; flush or pour flush, piped system, pit latrine, septic tank, ventilated improved pit latrine with slab and compositing toilet (Franceys et. al 1992). Unimproved sanitation facilitiesExcreta is flushed to the street, yard or plot, open sewer, a ditch, a drainage way or other location pit latrine without slab or open pit, bucket, hanging toilet or hanging latrine and no facilities or bush or field (Lemer, 1996). Unimproved sanitation (bucket system) Design and function In the South African context the bucket is always black, pvc and is about 38 cm in diameter at the top and 30 cm at the bottom and has adequate handles for lifting and carrying. The collection chamber is situated below the squatting seat.All the chambers are open at the rear of the latrine, into the service lane used for collection. The collection chamber must be fly and animal proof. The chamber needs to be ventilated by means of a pipe vent carried to roof level of the superstructure (Pickford, 1995). Collection and conveyance of buckets On a weekly basis collection are done and gets replaced with a disinfected bucket. Buckets that are emptied into a tank and are returned immediately the practice should be condemned unreservedly.The time of the collection should be done in partnership with the community affected. Buckets are emptied at the disposal sites, thoroughly washed, and disinfected with phenol or creosol type of disinfectant before being stores away and re-used (Pickford, 1995). Improved sanitation (Septic tank) Th e most satisfactory unit all water-carried systems and the most useful system of disposal of excreta and other liquid wastes from individual dwellings, small groups of houses, or institutions located in informal settlements out of reach of sewer systems.The septic tank consists of a covered settling tank into which the raw sewage is led by the building sewer. Inside the septic tank the processes constitute the primary treatment of raw sewage; and those which occur in the disposal field form the secondary treatment. All liquids wastes, including those from bathrooms and kitchens, may be sent to the septic tank without endangering its normal operation. Contrary to popular belief, recent research has shown that sullage waste can and should be discharged into septic tanks (Lemer, 1996).On-site sanitation As it was mentioned before that there are two types of sanitation systems in this instance the On-site sanitation systems is generally designed and must operate in such a way excreta is deposited into a man-made container, usually a subsurface excavation or tank. The common trend to all forms of on-site sanitation is that decomposition process and settlement is performed on-site. This is the most low-cost sanitation system as it has various types of pit latrines. They can be either wet or dry systems.Due to the shortage of space and availability of land in informal settlements this system operates the best under these conditions (Lemer, 1996). Off-site sanitation This type of sanitation system transports sewage through sewer pipes using water. An off-site sanitation system only transport faecal matter away from households and does not include on-site decomposition to a significant degree. This type of system depends largely on the topography of the area and the planning around the system. There must be enough land and space before such a system is created, which is difficult in informal settlements.The cost of such a system is quite high (Scandura and Sobsey, 1997 ). The availability of funds and the topography play an important role in the decision making on what type of technology communities should have within informal settlements. Sanitation Guidelines for End-user Greater user acceptance is achieved through user involvement and influence in selection, implementation and management including operation of the technology is borne out of understanding and experience that people best understand their own development situation, social, cultural and religious practices.If the communities are involved it leads to greater ownership and empowerment and would translate into greater acceptance of responsibility and hence the technology. It is within the human nature to be more receptive and supportive when asked about one’s opinion as opposed to being dictated or told to what’s is best for oneself (Mara, 1996). Note the following reasons why services fail: †¢Ineffective planning, monitoring, evaluation and interventions †¢Poo r technical capacity to implement †¢Hygiene and inappropriate use practises. †¢Low user acceptance and satisfaction †¢Inadequate community involvement Low priority and †¢Lack of responsibilities between municipal, community and household Finally- it is of great importance not to move too fast from temporary programmes to full-scale programmes, the community need to receive the programme so that it is not rejected. Planning and Design for Sanitation by Local Authorities Sanitation technology is adequately dependent on the appropriate design specification is borne out of the understanding that the correct design standards and locally appropriate materials would enhance the durability of the technology in a given local context.Planning plays a pivotal role as it is used as an important factor to determine whether appropriate and sustainable sanitation technologies are achieved. A planning model that integrates everyone is ideal (WSP, 2007) that takes place within th e Integrated Development Planning (IDP) process (DWAF, 2001). The various sanitation options are demonstrated through the IDP process. A top-down to bottom-up approach for a planning model should drive the demand and should be entirely people centred, best achieved through a collective model (Tilley, 2008). Implementation process during planningA methodology for the provision of sanitation is necessary to establish sanitation for low-income settlements and to support and equip personal responsible for provision of sanitation to low-income settlements (Muanda, 2010). In the planning process specific emphasis for adequate functioning of the technology is placed on the environmental aspect, that local environmental and geological condition are considered and that the technology does not adversely impact on the environment (DWAF, undated). The recurring points that need to be systemised are as follows; Human rights and socio-cultural needs should be considered †¢Affordability for t he user †¢Sanitation should be demand driven †¢Stakeholder participation †¢Support, regulation and implementation within the community participation framework should be considered. †¢Provision for construction should be to locals. †¢Community linkage at all levels During the implementation place it is important to include health and hygiene training as to ensure improved health and hygiene practice (Still et. al, 2009). What happens in the case where a local authority has provided such training?Over time many new comers arrive into the settlement (as is the case in many informal settlements)? The only solution to the question here is to train trainers in the community who will be responsible for constantly creating awareness in their community (DWAF, 2009). Sanitation Provision Policy South Africa despite being a democratic country for more than a decade, with a sound constitution and sound policies there is still high levels of poverty and inequalities and budgetary realignments designed to address the legacies of the past and steady economic growth (DWAF, undated).Some policies have been relatively successful but still South Africa has the second highest in equality in the world behind Brazil (UNICEF, 2000). The fact is that by 1996 not that much had been achieved by way of sanitation provision in any of the provinces (DBSA, 2009). Sanitation has become a high priority on the development agenda, and not just with the Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) sector specialist. The opportunities for financial support are better than ever, the political commitment is there, so as to deliver sustainable sanitation services to more than two billion people by 2015.A further 1,089 million rural and 1,085 million urban dwellers will need to gain access in the coming 15 years if the 2015 target is to be achieved. The first democratic government since 1994 has put in place policies that address the apartheid health legacy of racial discrimination. Du ring this process, several key-pro equity policies were inherited in the public sector. In the South African context the policy not only influences the approach to the financing and management of projects but also their technical features (WHO, 1999). CostsSocio-cultural landscapes and local variations in the physical landscape necessitate local input into the selection process and any preconceived ideas should be put on hold. Discussions with the targeted community about local capital and operation and maintenance costs have to be determined in each case that will enable the community and local authorities to come to a decision based on affordability. It is important that agencies reporting comparative costs on a wholly transparent basis, so that only the â€Å"true† basic costs of sanitation arrangement are presented to the communities (DBSA, 2009).Cost on various levels There are five (5) principles for various levels. †¢All costs relating to the provision of sanitati on service should be included †¢A distinction should be made between capital and operating costs †¢A clear distinction has to be made between internal and bulk services †¢Costs services must be expressed as current replacement at capacity cost. †¢Costs to be reduced per area or site. Cost sanitation technologies can also be influenced through the natural features such as vegetation, terrain and water availability and climatic conditions generally within the settlements.Conclusion The sanitation approach includes the perception, feel and practices involved in satisfying the primal need to defecate and urinate. Societal sanitation approach determines the nature of sanitation which serves as the crucial link between an unhealthy and healthy living environment. The term sanitation includes the safe disposal of domestic waste. For the purposes of this research, the structure seeks to understand the appropriate sanitation and identify a sanitation structure that is cos t effective and will be sustainable in informal settlements.Sanitation facilities are used to improve human dignity regardless of the area and the circumstances of the people. In this study we have looked at the process that needs to be followed in order to have sanitation technologies that safe guard the people. In informal settlements due to the nature of their existence and the lack of formal services, the communities usually do not take ownership of these facilities. The onus is upon government to train people about the importance of sanitation. The study focussed mostly on technologies that are used internationally and locally.The comparison of this technologies will be based on cost, structural intact and the maintenance therefore of the technology. References Rockstrom, Johan et al. : Sustainable Pathways to attain the Millennium Development Goals Assessing the Key Role of Water, Energy and Sanitation, Stockholm Environmental Institute, 2005. WHO & UNICEF: Meeting the MDG Dri nking Water and Sanitation Target – The urban and rural challenge. WSSCC/Sandec (2000). The Bellagio Statement on Sustainable Sanitation. Jenssen et al. , 2004 P. D. Jenssen, J. Heeb, E. Huba-Mang, K. Gnanakan, S. W. Warner, K. Refsgaard, Stenstorm Thor-Axel, B.Guterstam and K. W. Alsen, Ecological sanitation and reuse of wastewater, ecosan, a thinkpiece on ecological sanitation (2004). HDR (Human Development Report), 2006 HDR (Human Development Report), Beyond Scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis, United Nations Development Programme, New York (2006). Dorrington RE, Bradshaw D, Budlender D. HIV/AIDS Profile of the Provinces of South Africa—Indicators for 2002. Cape Town, South Africa: Centre for Actuarial Research, Medical Research Council and the Actuarial Society of South Africa, University of Cape Town; 2002. Rogerson, C. (1993); South African policy lessons.Urban Forum Vol. 4; No. 2. Housing Conditions, sanitation status and associated health risks in selected subsidized low- cost housing settlements in Cape Town, South Africa. Govender, T. Jo M. Barnes. Joubert A, Stewart T (2003). Evaluation of water supply augmentation and water demand management options for the City of Cape Town, journal of Multi-criteria Decision Analysis. Lemanski, C (2009). Augmented informality; South Africans backyard dwellings as a by-product of formal housing policies. WHO, (2006). Surveillance, planning, financing. Available online. City of Cape Town, Department of housing, (2004).Breaking new ground, comprehensive plan for housing delivery. Available online. Research methodology This chapter provides a comprehensive description of the comparison methods used to analyse sanitation technologies in informal settlements (IS). It outlines an overview of the research design, data collection, research equipment and research methodology used in order to meet the study objectives. Research design This section of the study is made up of the following: * Li terature review which compromises of literature, a body review, a framework, a body of knowledge with regards to sanitation technologies. Data collection which compromise methods used to collect required data * Data Analysis and Presentation in the light of the literature review to determine the trends used for sanitation technologies for IS. Research methodology This study intends to provide a better understanding of sanitation facilities within the Western Cape within informal settlements and to compare the cost implications of such facilities. Data The data required in order to archive the study objectives includes the type of sanitation technology for IS and the cost in relation to sanitation technology.Data acquired was based on the following: †¢Type of sanitation †¢Cost (Operational & Maintenance) †¢Cost (Infrastructure) †¢Advantages and Disadvantages of On-site sanitation †¢Advantages and Disadvantages of Off-site sanitation Data Collection In order t o collect data two methods are used (Two interviews & Site visits). * Site visits on selected IS in order to assess the type of sanitation technology being used. The site visits where done by conducting visual assessment in three informal settlements with the Metro. Data was collected by comparing the types of technology that is being used within each settlement.A questionnaire template was used to gather user’s views and opinions on the technologies offered by the municipality. * An interview with the Municipal Officer (MO) to confirm or validate data/technology on site and the cost of the technology. The interview was set out to ascertain the magnitude and the need of sanitation facilities within informal settlements which is done by the municipality. Operational and maintenance cost of the technology being used was collected for comparison purposes. * An interview with manufactures of sanitation technologies was conducted in order to confirm cost per unit.All the manufactu res that where contacted where primary manufactures that the municipality procures all their sanitation technologies. Rocla was one of the manufactures that was interviewed about their precast toilets. Rocla has two sets of precast toilets one with sanitation facilities and one without sanitation facilities. A comparison of the two technologies has been tabled in Chapter 4. Santec was also interviewed about their Mobile toilets which comprised two sets of toilets (dry & wet). A comparison of the two technologies is outlined in Chapter 4.Research Equipment The following equipment was used for this study: * Pen; this tool was used to capture raw data from site. * Laptop; ; the laptop is used to store all data collected and is also used to make tables to present all the research work into a document * Digital Camera; the digital camera was used to take pictures on site and during interviews. * Mobile phone; mobile phones where used as a means of communication amongst all stakeholders i nvolved. * Fax Machine; was used to send and also receive data from stakeholders without email facilities and scans. Landline; the tool was used for communication between office hours and is the most affordable means of communication. Methodology Objective 1 – To investigate available sanitation technologies provided to informal settlement from operational, design, maintenance and cost. The objective was implemented by conducting of site visits, during which visual assessments where used to compile the name of the technology, specific technical aspects such as design and the condition of the technologies on site. Below is a list of design technologies within informal settlements that where visited. * Porta potiies * Chemical toilets Container toilets * Conservancy tanks * Pour flush toilets * Pit latrines * Urine diversion toilets * MobiSan toilets * Environmental loo Objective 2 * To classify the types of sanitation according to the characteristics (dry or wet sanitation; in dividual or communal). Classification of the technology was done by identifying individual and communal sanitation technologies. * * Dry sanitation | * Wet sanitation| * A dry toilet differs from a flush toilet (water closet) in that it does not need water. Excreta are collected directly beneath the seat in a shallow pit, container, chamber, such as the bucket system.Confusion must cleared between the systems especially latrine system which is constructed on a deep pit. Dry toilets ranges include a squatting plate or pedestal, with a smooth finished surface and is often utilised in limited area to minimise soiling. | * These are the conventional full flush system with sewers and waste water treatment plants, full flush systems with septic tank and small bore sewers, and the full flush systems with shallow sewerage. With septic tanks will significantly reduce operating costs, while the third system shallow sewers will significantly reduce the capital costs.The advantages of this grou p of toilets are that they operate as full flush toilets, can accommodate grey water disposal, and are well suited to densely populated areas where the plot sizes are insufficient to treat and drain household wastes. | * Objective 3 – Selection of the suitable option The suitable option was based on the advantages and disadvantages on the interview and the cost of the technology by the manufacture. The selected option is also based on the manufacture’s specification which used on site by the municipality and the budget allocated to the MO for that particular region.Advantages of On-site sanitation| Disadvantages of On-site sanitation| The system must be simple to construct, operate and maintain| This system is not suitable for substrata with hard rock and high water table conditions. | Installation should be less expensive and maintenance the same| The is a high possibility of pathogens contaminating the groundwater| Pollution of water surface should be eliminated| In highly densely populated urban areas such as informal settlements crucial groundwater resources can get contaminated. | Semi Structured InterviewsSemi structured interviews were conducted to collect data from users to obtain the users views on sanitation technologies and the type of service the municipality is rendering. Users were asked questions on sanitation situations, technology selection, performance of facilities, appropriateness of the technologies, operational and maintenance of the facilities. A total of twelve (12) interviews were conducted. See (Appendix A) for the questionnaire template. Table 1 shows the distribution of the interviews conducted. Area| No. of interviews| Gugulethu| 4| Khayelitsha| 4| Nyanga| 4|TOTAL| 12| Table 1Distribution of interviews The questionnaires were administered on site with the users of the selected informal settlements. Administration of questionnaires was conducted in Xhosa since most of the users were comfortable speaking the language. D ue to the lack of finding suitable donor’s to fund our survey only small sample was administered that actually uses the facilities. Discussion This section of study reflects the visual assessment that was conducted on site. A questioner was used to ascertain the level of service from the end user on the three (3) identified sites.A comparison of technologies that is being offered in informal settlements by the municipality is also reflected. The physical structure of the technologies being offered by manufactures to municipalities. Operational and maintenance cost implication from the manufacture and that cost is later transferred or felt by the municipality. Types of Sanitation Technologies Technology| Settlement Name| Suburb Name| Porta potiies| KTC| Nyanga| Chemical toilets| KTC| Nyanga| Conservancy toilets| Monwabisi Park| Khayelitsha| Pour flush toilets| Barcelona| Gugulethu|Pit Latrines| Monwabisi Park | Khayelitsha| MobiSan toilets. | KTC| Nyanga| Dry toilets A dry toi let differs from a flush toilet (water closet) in that it does not need water. Excreta are collected directly beneath the seat in a shallow pit, container, chamber, such as the bucket system. Confusion must cleared between the systems especially latrine system which is constructed on a deep pit. Dry toilets ranges include a squatting plate or pedestal, with a smooth finished surface and is often utilised in limited area to minimise soiling.ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| No water required for flushing| Capital: R2000 – R 3500. 00 which can increase where soils not suited to drainage. | The toilet has to be cleaned without using much water. | Easy to construct with local material| Operating: R150 – R300 per annum where subsoil drainage is available| Collected excreta has to be carefully handled, excreta contains pathogens| May be used indoors| | Excreta have to be removed frequently to avoid smells, especially if the toilets are indoors| MobiSan (Mobile Sanitation)Mobi San (Mobile Sanitation) system in many ways has many advantages over existing dry systems. Below is a list of those advantages; MobiSan Advantages| MobiSan Disadvantages| The MobiSan system is an independent and self-contained system and has been proven that the system does not affect ground water at all. Faeces and urine are stored separately in the MobiSan. Urine is channelled away and the faeces fall into a ventilated chamber. The construction of the system is such that a handle on the outside of the cabin allows the solid waste to be stirred.The steering speeds up the drying of the excrement. The excrement is then channelled into a second component where this drying process is repeated again. The end product is dried up, it is pathogen-free manure that can be safely used to fertilise local vegetable gardens within the communities in informal settlements. This system lends itself as a more aesthetic and hygienic option for residents in informal settlements. | The technology provi ded is prone to vandalism and becomes full within a short period. Operating costs are very high. | Conservancy tank ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES|Waste is flushed into the tank where it is contained in isolation from the surrounding environment. | Capital: R2000 – R 5000. 00 depending on top structure and tank volume| Becomes full if domestic wastewater levels are high. | Easy to construct with local material| Operating: R 550. 00 per household and emptying cost estimated at R181 per tank. The tank is emptied on average 3 times per year| Emptying cost over the lifespan of the technology is quite high. | VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit) ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| Applicable in rock terrain| Capital: R2500 – R 4500. 0Depending on householder input. | . Collected excreta has to be carefully handled, excreta contains pathogens| Does not require deep excavation| Operating: R35 – R135 every 2 years. | Prone to smells. | On-site Sanitation On-site sanitation has c ertain requirements, which need to be investigated before adopting the system. †¢The system must have adequate space for locating toilets and leach pits. †¢The designated site must have porous subsoil to absorb liquid content of excreta and †¢The groundwater depth should be greater than 1,5m from ground level.ADVANTAGES OF On-site sanitation| DISADVANTAGES OF On-site sanitation| The system must be simple to construct, operate and maintain| This system is not suitable for substrata with hard rock and high water table conditions. | Installation should be less expensive and maintenance the same| The is a high possibility of pathogens contaminating the groundwater| Pollution of water surface should be eliminated| In highly densely populated urban areas such as informal settlements crucial groundwater resources can get contaminated. | Pour flush slabs Pour flush slabs (squatting pans) are designed with a U-shaped facility which s partly filled with water under slab. The de sign which is U overcomes problems such as flies, mosquitoes’ and odour by serving as a water seal. After usage, excreta are manually flushed by pouring water into the pan with a scoop. The amount is about 1 to 4 litres of water which is required for each flush. The amount of water depends mainly on the design of the facility and the U-trap. This type of toilet can be made from plastic and ceramic, or from galvanized sheet metal . ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| High level of convenience for the user| Capital: R 2000- R 3500 which can increase where soils are not well suited to drainage. Blockages occur a lot within these systems| The design reduces the need to handle fresh excreta. | Operating: R 150 – R 300 per annum where subsoil drainage is available| Requires small amounts of water for flushing| Can be used indoors| | Limited emptying service. | Communal or shared technologies In areas where there is not enough space, the sharing of latrines between several famil ies is a useful solution. The common situation is where groups of households or small communal areas have latrines to be used by all the families.The ownership of the latrines generally belongs to one of the houses, the owner of all the houses, or else ownership is shared between the households. The costs of pit emptying and other repairs is often included in the rent, causing problems when the owner does not live there, or the residents must collaborate to clean the latrine and collect money to get it emptied when necessary. This is a very widespread practice. Communal of blocks of latrines are located in a public area,